Savitribai Phule was an advocate of 'education for all', irrespective of caste, class and gender; she transformed the educational landscape of India in the 19th century
“Gyan naahi, vidya naahi / Te gheneche godi naahi / Buddhi asuni chaalat nahi / Tayas maanav mhanave ka? (Those who have no knowledge / Nor desire to seek it / And do not apply their minds / Do they deserve to be called human?),” wrote Savitribai Phule (1831-1897), hailed as India’s first woman teacher, in one of her best-known poems, ‘Tayas Maanav Mhanave Ka? (Do they deserve to be called human?)’ — a critique on who deserves to be called human. It was a relentless quest for education that marked Phule’s own life. A radical exponent of education, an advocate of women’s liberation, and a mass leader Phule was a poet too, who took on the forces of caste and patriarchy. “When you count the world’s greatest champions of education, make sure to include Savitribai Phule in the list,” tennis legend Andre Agassi once said.
Born in the village of Naigaon (Maharashtra) into a family of shudra farmers, Savitribai was encouraged by her father, Khandoji Nevse Patil. Not only did Patil recognize the importance of education for his daughter, he also instilled in her a lifelong passion for knowledge, which would later drive her and her husband, Mahatma Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-1890) — often referred to as Jotiba — to transform the educational landscape of India in the 19th century. Besides her works as an educator and social reformer, she published four books, including two volumes of poetry. In yet Majhi Janmabhoomi, Savitribai pays a heartfelt homage to her birthplace. The poem paints a vivid picture of the idyllic setting in her village. She describes abundant rainfall, flourishing crops, overflowing wells, and a profusion of flowers and sweet fruits; birds and butterflies add to the picturesque scene.
The spark she lit
In the 19th century Poona (now Pune), Savitribai’s battleground society was rigidly categorised on the basis of chaturvarna system, comprising the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. “The caste system was myopic and oppressive, and it was a dark period. They fought against societal ills to ensure ‘education for all’ because social justice, freedom and equal opportunity cannot exist without it. The British made the fatal error of supporting their efforts. They underestimated the impact of education on Indians focused on the short-term goal of cheap labour to run their administration. The education of Indians became the nemesis of British arrogance and superiority,” writes Reeta Ramamurthy Gupta in Savitribai Phule: Her Life, Her Relationships, Her Legacy (HarperCollins India, 2023), in which she talks about Savitribai’s relationship with her mentor, Sagunbai Kshirsagar, and fellow teacher Fatima Sheikh.
Savitribai married Jyotirao at the tender age of nine; their relationship was marked by mutual respect and a shared commitment to challenge the stifling status quo. As the British East India Company extended its grip over India’s vast resources, recognising the imperative of an educated populace to facilitate administration, they also initiated measures to promote education, inadvertently setting the stage for the Phules’ crusade against Brahminical dominance in education, which had perpetuated a repressive caste system that consigned marginalised communities and women to the periphery of society, where ignorance and injustice was the order of the day.
To the Phules, education held the potential to be the catalyst for change. As the British allocated funds for missionary activity and education, they established their first school for girls in 1848. It charted a revolutionary course, breaking free from the shackles of conventionality by adopting a progressive curriculum that encompassed a broad range of subjects, including Maratha history, Indian and Asian geography, grammar, arithmetic, and socio-economic issues. At a time when girls’ education was often an afterthought, Savitribai, along with her aide-de-camp Fatima Sheikh, imparted lessons at their school with a logical approach. Between 1848 and 1853, the Phules established 18 schools in Pune. These schools, though not without their own challenges, offered education to all — irrespective of caste, creed, or gender; sadly, very few of these schools survived. But the spark lit by Jyotirao, Savitribai and their friends and supporters “fired the flame of nationhood as educated Indians grouped, coordinated, rebelled and eventually reclaimed independent India,” writes Gupta.
The historical moment she seized
The British rule in India in the 19th century saw a shift towards what could be termed a ‘surrogate emphasis’ on education: the East India Company changed its approach from purely economic interests to a more comprehensive engagement with Indian society, including education. However, social reformers, particularly those from the Maratha Confederacy, did not view the British as their immediate enemies. Instead, their primary concern was the religious and social authority wielded by the Brahmins, which was responsible for perpetuating practices such as sati (the immolation of widows), child marriages, polygamy, tonsuring of widows, female infanticide, and other oppressive customs. These practices were maintained through superstition and the denial of education to the oppressed, and women.
The century from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the 1857 uprising witnessed a shift in the East India Company’s role—from a trading concern to more of an administrator. The vastness of India necessitated the recruitment of Indians at lower administrative levels. This required education, particularly proficiency in English. However, deep-seated distrust of Indians held by some British officials, like Lord Cornwallis, hindered the integration of Indians into high-ranking positions in the civil service. Also, the existing Indian education system was not suited to meet the needs of the British administrative service. William Adams’ 1830 report on the education system in Bengal highlighted the presence of temple pathshalas, Muslim maktabs, and Sikh gurdwaras that taught various regional languages and scriptures.
Earlier, in 1813, the British had inserted a clause into the East India Company’s charter, which encouraged missionary activity in India and allocated funds — 10,000 pounds annually — for education. As a result, missionaries from various countries, including France, Germany, and the United States, arrived in India with a mission of ‘social reconstruction with a moral revolution.’ In the 1830s, the rise of the evangelical movement in England, too, had repercussions in India. While Evangelicals aimed for religious conversion, Indian social reformers primarily worked in the area of education. Recognizing this difference, the British Empire launched a ‘civilization mission,’ which focused on social and cultural transformation, with education as a central component.
In 1839, Lord Macaulay, a British parliamentarian, articulated the idea that Indian languages were inadequate for Western scientific education. British reformer William Bentinck, who became the governor-general of India in 1839, understood the need to liberate Indian subjects from Brahminical oppression. In 1835, Lord Macaulay presented his ‘Minute on Education,’ advocating the provision of English language education, especially in the sciences. It was this moment that Savitribai seized.
It is estimated that Savitribai began writing poetry around 1850, which makes her one of the earliest Marathi poets, if not the first. However, her poetic prowess remains largely overshadowed by her contemporaries; in the same way, she is often reduced to that of Jotiba Phule’s wife, an egregious oversight. One of her seminal works, Kavya Phule (Poetry’s Blossoms), published in 1854, comprises 41 poems that touch upon diverse themes: from a deep connection with nature to concern for societal injustices. In her poem Tayas Maanav Mhanave Ka?, she provocatively questioned the essence of humanity, underscoring the significance of knowledge and critical thinking. During the devastating famine of 1876-77, Savitribai’s pen turned into a weapon against the oppressive social order. In her scathing verses, she accused the Brahmins of exploiting the crisis, bringing to light the suffering of the lower castes.
